The Between Roman Empire And Christianity - 851 Words

(1) Describe the interrelation between the Roman Empire and Christianity by examining the following: (a) Emperor Constantine (b) The Latin Language (c) Church Ritual. The Roman Empire was extremely instrumental in the growth and spread of Christianity. It was already about 400 years old at the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of the Christian faith, and directly influenced his life. The Roman Empire saw the growing Christian cult as threat, and ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. The followers of Christ were persecuted for centuries after his death until the Emperor Constantine took an interest in Christianity, which was spreading rapidly throughout the empire. Emperor Constantine encouraged the organization of Christian ideals and promoted the religion due to its ability to unify people of different cultures, which Roman polytheism failed to do. Constantine and the emperors that followed endorsed Christianity, and Roman culture permeated the Christian faith: Early Christianity adopt ed the church rituals, language, architecture, moral principles, and many, many other cultural products from the Roman Empire. The birth of Christianity occurred as the Roman Empire began to split, but nearly every aspect of Roman culture survived in Christianity. This is evident in the architecture of Christian buildings, the elaborate rituals and practices found in many Christian sects, the date and often the very reason for many Christian holidays, the Latin language which was used forShow MoreRelatedSimilarities Between Christianity And Christianity903 Words   |  4 Pagesintroduction of Christianity brought forth an abrupt change to the ancient Roman Empire between 100 CE to 500 CE. Ancient Roman society before this time period was religiously devoted to polytheistic deities. The birth of Jesus and the eventual spread of Christianity brought forth many social and political changes to this society. Christianity was at first persecuted by other religions, and later it would per secute them. Although Christianity in ancient Rome shared some similarities to traditional Roman religionRead MoreRise Of Christianity : Christianity1456 Words   |  6 PagesRise of Christianity Essay Christianity is one of the largest religions in the world. With 2.2 billion adherents, it ranks above Islam, Atheists, and Hinduism. So why is this religion so well known? How did it get where it is today? Where did it start? It started with Jesus of Nazareth who was born in Bethlehem, the Messiah to the Jewish people, and crucified by the Romans. His life, works, death, and resurrection is what started Christianity. But that wasn’t the end of it. Christians would faceRead MoreChanges and continuities of Roman empire1432 Words   |  6 Pages Between 500 BCE and 500 CE, the Roman civilization experienced changes both politically and culturally. Firstly, Rome’s government transitioned from a Republic to an Empire. Later, that empire was split into two parts; east and west. In terms of changes in culture, it was impacted by the shift in religion, as the Romans shifted from polytheism to monotheism. Despite all the changes, Rome still remained culturally diverse. The Romans overthrew the Etruscans in 509 B.C.E. The EtruscansRead MoreThe Theodosian Code1250 Words   |  5 PagesThe Roman Empire was a marvelous civilization stretching from the far ends of the Mediterranean Sea to the nutrient rich soils of the Fertile Crescent and all the way north to what is now known as the United Kingdom. In fact, the empire was so expansive that there was a need for organized law; and so with each emperor there came new constitutions and decrees for the Roman people to follow. The Theodosian Code was just one of the many juristic materials that helped define Roman law and keep legalRead MoreJustinian And The Byzantine Empire1568 Words   |  7 PagesByzantine Empire. Although it is currently referred to as the Byzantine Empire, many citizens and leaders, including Justinian, considered themselves to be Roman and part of the Roman Empire. This mentality led to the revival of the Roman Empire in Byzantine and in its capital, Constantinople. Du ring his rule, Justinian led the empire to its greatest size both in the amount of controlled land and influence over groups in Europe and Asia. He also contributed to the spread of Christianity both withinRead MoreAids To The Growth of Christianity in The Roman Empire Essay1537 Words   |  7 PagesGrowth of Christianity in the Roman Empire In the Roman Civilization where the prevalent worship of Roman gods were impersonal and did not provide a moral base or a message of hope, in the fourth century Christianity was formed, born as a movement within Judaism. Christianity emphasized the personal relationship between God and people, slowly spread through the Roman Empire until ultimately dominating the western culture. Three of the several factors that aided to the growth of Christianity in theRead MoreEssay on Success of Christianity in the Roman Empire852 Words   |  4 PagesIn the Roman Civilization where the prevalent worship of roman gods were impersonal and did not provide a moral base or a message of hope, in the fourth century Christianity was formed, born as a movement within Judaism Christianity emphasized the personal relationship between God and people slowly spread through the Roman Empire until ultimately dominating the western culture. Three of the several factors that aided to the growth of Christianity i n the Roman Empire were; the central beliefs andRead MoreComparison of Byzantine Empire and Ancient Rome Essay806 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Byzantine Empire and Ancient Roman have similar aspects, but each one made it unique. To better understand the similarities and differences of the Byzantine Empire and Ancient Romans one must look at each civilization’s cultural ideas, religion, dependence on lower class. The Byzantine Empire and Ancient Romans’ cultural ideas, religion, dependence on lower class portray commonalities between these two civilizations. Both the Byzantine Empire and Ancient Romans had Roman influences whichRead MoreThe Early Middle Ages And Early Medieval Period Essay1435 Words   |  6 Pagesdivided the empire into two empires: the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and the Western Roman Empire. The transition into the late antiquity period was characterized by a sharp decline in population as a result of plagues, pandemics and war. Along with death comes spirituality; during this time there was a steady decline in older religions, traditions and rituals, which resulted in significant changes in spirituality. Multiple religions emerged, the most significant being Christianity, whichRead MoreChristianity And Its Impact On The Development Of Christianity1283 Words   |  6 PagesChristianity was born and flourished in an empire where the common language w as Latin and Greek. Two important people like Paul and Constantine further influenced and were a major part of the development of Christianity. The history of the Jews leading up to the time of Jesus had a major impact on the development of Christianity. â€Å"When Christianity was clearly identified as a distant religion, the new religion was considered by its members to be the fulfillment of Judaism rather than a new religion

Cowboy Subculture Paper - 1634 Words

Subculture Cowboy Culture The word cowboy brings to mind images of the old west, mostly movies. Ten gallon hats, boots, spurs, horses, revolvers and of course cows. In todays society the term cowboy or cowgirl isn’t always a favorable one. It can mean ignorant, country, reckless, or just refer to boots and hats. Are Cowboys even still around? Not the â€Å"wanna be† hat on the weekend’s type of person, the genuine article. The answer may surprise you. In today’s modern world, cowboys aren’t just still around; they have developed into the subculture in which I belong. The cowboy subculture can be found all across the United States and Hawaii. What is the Cowboy Culture and who belongs in it? The cowboy culture is made up of many different†¦show more content†¦The knife has multiple blades, usually including a leather punch and a sheepsfoot blade. Lariat; from the Spanish la riata, meaning the rope, sometimes called a lasso, especially in the East, or simply, a rope. This is a tightly twisted stiff rope, originally of rawhide or leather, now often of nylon, made with a small loop at one end called a hondo. Spurs; metal devices attached to the heel of the boot, featuring a small metal shank, usually with a small serrated wheel attached, used to allow the rider to provide a stronger (or sometimes, more precise) leg cue to the horse. Horse: Either Quarter horse or mustang. Tack: (Gear for your horse) each area of the cowboy subculture has a certain type of saddle that they use. For instance Team roper’s saddles are heavier with a thicker horn in order to with stand the weight of the cow they rope, while Barrel Racers saddles are lighter with a narrow horn to allow for a better hold and less weight on their horse. Bridle; a Western bridle usually has a curb bit and long split reins to control the horse in many different situations Saddle blanket; a blanket or pad is required under the Western saddle to provide comfort and protection for the horse. Western saddle; a saddle specially designed to allow horse and rider to work for many hours and to provide security to the rider in rough terrain or when moving quickly in response to the behavior of the livestock being herded. A western saddle has aShow MoreRelated Political Advocacy in Anarchist Punk Music Essay3584 Words   |  15 Pagessignificantly altered the ways they espouse their beliefs, over time becoming more militant and directly confrontational with those that hold power. This paper attempts use quantitative and qualitative analysis to determine how significantly anarcho-punk political advocacy has changed between the early 1980s and present day. Additionally, this paper argues that increased militancy is a byproduct of the progressive masculinization of punk music, which generates confusion over political roles. This roleRead MoreEssay on Black Artists in Country Music2841 Words   |  12 Pagesaren’t there more black country music stars? 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Solid Waste Management Case Study In Bristol Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

The direction of Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW ) is a major environmental crisis throughout of the World, which everyone is concerned about. In the United Kingdom, the measure of municipal waste has increased and 46.9 per cent of the sum collected waste has disposed of in landfill in 2009/10 ( DEFRA, 2010b ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Solid Waste Management Case Study In Bristol Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now In comparing, the Netherlands and Denmark have disposed of about no municipal waste to landfill and other members of European Unit of measurements such as Germany and Sweden have less than a one-fourth of municipal waste to landfill ( DEFRA, 2010b ) . Therefore, the UK Government published Waste Strategy for England 2007 on 24th May 2007 in order to run into EU scheme and set out a sustainable method for hierarchy of waste direction options within clime alteration and population growing. The cardinal ends of the scheme are to put out a design for waste bar, decrease, re-use, recycling and recovery and bettering environmental and economic results through increased recycling of resources and recovery of energy from residuary waste utilizing a mix of engineerings. There are some actions of the proposal scheme outlined, for illustration, energy from waste is expected to account for 25 % of municipal waste by 2020 compared to 10 % in 2007 and the standard rate of landfill revenue enhance ment addition by eight lbs per twelvemonth from 2008 until at least 2010/11 ( DEFRA, 2010c ) . As a consequence, it is necessary to put up a assortment of waste intervention for recovery stuff in the UK, such as Mechanical Biological Treatment ( MBT ) and Energy from Waste ( EfW ) . There is no uncertainty that a figure of local governments face major challenges when they manage residuary waste sustainably. Take Bristol for illustration, 59 % of waste has been sent to landfill and 40 % has been recycled or composted in 2009/10 ( DEFRA, 2010d ) . Harmonizing to Bristol City Council ( 2000 ) , 100,000 metric tons of family waste will stay to be treated if 40 % waste is recycled or composted. Therefore, the council wants to do a 25 old ages Residual Waste Management Contract with company to handle 100,000 metric tons of Residual MSW by one of three options which include MBT with composting or anaerobiotic digestion and Energy from Waste. In this paper, the environmental impacts of each option will be assessed in order to happen a sustainable method for residuary waste direction i n Bristol. Furthermore, some comparative extenuation steps and redress attacks for chose option will be mentioned, concentrating cardinal issues of development and land renovation after 25 old ages. 2. The Description of Development and Site Bristol metropolis council aims to put up a waste intervention works in the metropolis in order to non merely run into their recycling demands but besides make expeditiously retrieve value from the residuary waste produced. There is no uncertainty that a hundred thousand metric tons of rubbish send to the new workss for processing in the coming old ages instead than dumping it in landfill sites. The possible possible site is assumed as antecedently used land which locates in the chief industrial estate ( Avonmouth ) in the northern portion of Bristol. It would by and large be preferred in planning footings, as no new land would be used and contaminated land restored. In add-on, the installation has good transit substructure, which consequences from closely primary route web and instead rail entree. Figure 1 shows some possible antecedently land in the possible country, which have several big chemical fabrication workss and besides has a important residential country in Avonmouth betw een the industrialized zone and the M5 expressway. Furthermore, a big graduated table of green sites and H2O organic structure around the false site. Figure 1. The Potential Site for Waste Treatment Plant in Bristol alll sites.jpg ( Beginning: Google Map ) There are three possible options including MBT utilizing composting ( In Vessel Composting ) or anaerobiotic digestion ( AD ) or EfW provided in following inside informations. The local waste scheme officers assume that: 100,000 tonne residuary MSW will be treated ; the elaborate value of intervention for each option is described in Figure 2 ; Figure 2. The Value of Waster Treatment Process assorted recyclates are deserving on mean ?50/tonne ; all workss operate 90 % of the 8760 hours in a twelvemonth ; both digestate and compost are disposed to landfill at the full revenue enhancement rate ; nevertheless, the digestate is charged the full dispose cost, compost is disposed for free ; bottom ash can be processed and used as a secondary sum, doing net income at ?5/tonne ; gas cleansing residues are risky waste and landfilled at ?100/ metric ton plus landfill revenue enhancement at ?48/tonne ; electricity from AD is deserving ?135/MWh, electricity from EfW and In Vessel Composting is deserving ?60/ MWh. 3. Introduction of Three Processing Options for the Residual Municipal Solid Waste Management This subdivision focuses on debut of the procedure and principals of three options including In Vessel Composting, Anaerobic Digestion and Energy from Waste. MBT chiefly follow two procedures including mechanical sorting and biological procedure. Mechanical sorting is to screen ‘mechanical ‘ component such as metal, plastics, glass A ; paper, which is made by manus and is a basic procedure in both composting and anaerobiotic digestion. However, the biological procedures are different because of the assortment of intervention principals. Anaerobic digestion, which is the biological intervention of organic waste without O, utilise microbic activity to interrupt down the waste in a controlled environment with mesophilic and thermophlic digestion and bring forth biogas ( e.g. Methane and Carbon Dioxide ) and digestate at the same clip. In Vessel Composting is an enclosed compost system and is the intervention of organic affair with aerophilic micro-organism to bring forth a mixture of stable humic substances and inorganic works food ( Agrivert, 2010 ) . In comparing with AD, there is no green energy produced through the system, hence, the excess energy will be used in the procedures. Energy from Waste is process incorporation the thermic decomposition of the waste include waste response and storage, burning system, heat recovery, fluke gas cleansing, power coevals and procedure control and proctor. Compared with MBT, EfW can disposal of all types of waste without other pre-treatment and the temperature has a minimal demand of 850oC for 2 seconds ( March, 2010a ) . Additionally, incineration offers a farther option for the intervention of residuary MSW and is already proved and bankable engineering in the UK with 26 EfW workss ( March, 2010a ) . However, there is no incineration in Bristol at the minute. 4. Environmental Impacts Assessment of Three Processing Options In order to accomplish the UK authorities ‘s cardinal ends and Bristol waste scheme, appraisal of the environmental and economic impacts of each processing option should be undertaken in the undermentioned subdivision. Local installations of waste intervention would supply much local employment chances. Furthermore, the figure of statute law and planning policy consisting international, national and local policy will besides be introduced to do certain the sustainable development. Therefore, this subdivision focal point on the cardinal issues of waste intervention options such as air emanations / wellness effects, dust / smell, noise, H2O resources, ocular invasion and public concern. Harmonizing to analysis of environmental impact appraisal, one of the options will be identified as the Best Practicable Environmental Option for Bristol City Council. 4.1 Planning Policy and Context I ) International Policy The European Union has instigated a scope of Directives at a European degree that should be suited for each EU member and transposed into national Torahs in order to follow the local environment. The undermentioned International policies provide the European model for Waste applicable to the United Kingdom. aˆ? European Community ( EC ) Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC ; aˆ? EC Framework Directive for Waste 75/442/EEC as amended by 91/156/EEC ; aˆ? Waste Incineration Directive 2000/76EC ( WID ) . two ) National Policy The Waste Strategy for England ( 2007 ) sets out the Government ‘s vision for sustainable waste direction. The cardinal aims and marks of the scheme are to cut down the sum of waste produced and increase the rate of recovery of municipal waste. There are besides some other statute law created to accomplish the mark in the followers: Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme ( LATS ) ; Planing Policy Guidance Notes ( PPG ) and Planing Policy Statements ( PPS ) ; Planing Policy Statement 1 ( PPS1 ) : Delivering Sustainable Development ( 2005 ) ; Planing and Climate Change ( PCC ) : The intent is to put out how climate alteration considerations should be taken into history at different phases of the planning procedure. Planing Policy Statement 10 ( PPS 10 ) : Planing for Sustainable Waste Management. During Annex E of PPS 10, the chief factors have been taken into history by waste planning governments when proving the suitableness of a site for waste direction intents. three ) Regional and Local Planning Policy Planing policies for Bristol are set out in the Statutory Development Plan which includes the undermentioned paperss ( South Gloucestershire Council, 2010 ) : Regional Planning Guidance for the South West ( RPG10 ) ( September 2001 ) Joint Replacement Structure Plan ( as saved ) ( September 2002 ) Bristol Local Plan ( as saved ) ( 1997 ) Regional Planning Guidance for the South West ( RPG10 ) ( 2001 ) RPG10 comprises the Regional Spatial Strategy for the South West and the Regional Transport Strategy, and purpose to run into sustainable development in footings of environment, economic system and society. 4.2 Anaerobic Digestion In footings of biodegradable waste either by anaerobiotic digestion or by composting MBT engineerings helps to cut down the part of nursery gases to minmise the impacts of planetary heating. IPPC ( 2010 ) stated that AD engineering for assorted homogeneous waste watercourses is widely proven in Europe, but there are no full graduated table workss in operation in the UK on municipal derived wastes. Therefore, environmental and economic impacts should be assessed in order to develop installations at nowadays. 4.2.1 Environmental impacts As we all know that anaerobiotic digestion is wholly enclosed system, which may cut down environmental impacts. As it may accomplish a cardinal purpose of the landfill Directive and cut down organic wastes from landfill which reduces the production of landfill gas and leachates. Although the installation has pollution control engineering in order to command the sustainable processes non merely for the company but besides for the populace, each development has some relevant impacts on air, H2O resources and local occupants. For illustration, odour emanations should be released during stuff handling and other air emanation ( Methane ) would be release during the procedure. This may impact the local life status if the pollution will non be controlled and ocular invasion, plagues and noise jobs. In order to foretell how smell will be transported, some information such as meteoric conditions ( e.g. , wind velocity and way, temperature, and inversion conditions ) in the proposal site can b e obtained from a local conditions station. Furthermore, taint of concluding merchandise is frequently hard to avoid, which means digestate from residuary MSW connot be used for nutrient growth ; lone regeneration of contaminated land or landfill screen ( McKendry 2010 ) . Therefore, AD besides has somewhat negative impacts on environment during the handling and procedures of the installation. Harmonizing to Figure 2, net energy ( 0.5 MWe ) will be produced for National Grid, which besides can salvage energy and cut down environmental pollution from power coevals. To sum up, compared with no waste intervention in Bristol, AD is a better environmental practical option for waste recovery and besides can accomplish the UK cardinal mark. 4.2.2 Economic impacts It requires comprehensive pre-processing of the waste or beginning separation and larger digestion armored combat vehicles as it does non handle the whole Municipal Solid Waste watercourse but may be used on residuary municipal waste watercourse with contaminations rejected as portion of the procedure. Therefore, AD is more capital intensive than composting and cost more for landfill revenue enhancement. Furthermore, the end product of digestates is by and large risky and set to landfill, which will besides be more for the procedure than production from composting. However, compared with composting, energy should be produced and is deserving ?532,170 which is less than net income of net energy from EfW ( Figure 3 ) . Person ( City and County of Swansea, 2011 ) references that AD is comparatively low capital costs compared to most thermic procedures. On the other manus, anaerobiotic digestion has non adequate net income which created from byproducts compared to EfW ( Figure 3 ) . In f ootings of economic system, anaerobiotic digestion is the secondary pick in three waste direction options for Bristol. Figure 3. The Analysis of Input and Output of Economy in Proposed Waste Treatment Plant Anaerobic Digestation In Vessel Composting Energy from Waste Input signal 2,380,000 ( Landfill ) 1,564,000 ( Digestate ) – 2,040,000 ( Landfill ) 2,880,000 ( Compost ) – 408,000 ( Landfill ) – 888,000 ( Gas Cleaning ) End product Net income 1,500,000 ( Recyclates ) – 532,170 ( Net Energy ) i1,911,830 1,500,000 ( Recyclates ) – i473,040 ( Net Energy ) i3,893,040 375,000 ( Recyclates ) 185,000 ( Bottom Ash ) 3,784,320 ( Net Energy ) 3,048,320 4.3 In Vessel Composting Actually, this engineering has merely had limited experience in the UK ; nevertheless, it is quickly increasing in figure due to recent statute law of waste direction such as Landfill Directive. The advantage of In-Vessel Composting is that the procedures are more controlled and can be designed to accomplish specified temperatures of facilitate bacteriums devastation. 4.3.1 Environmental impacts Composting can cut down volume of organic waste fraction of MSW by 25-50 % and minmise landfill rate ( IPPC, 2010 ) , which avoid environmental pollution ( Landfill gas and leachate ) similar with AD. However, some possible smell and leachate besides should be produced, which can ensue in air and H2O resources may be polluted to some extent. Although it is suited for green and kitchen waste, it is possible of co-composting operations with other waste watercourses such as paper, sewerage sludge ( IPPC, 2010 ) . On the other manus, it requires careful beginning segregation of farther station or intervention as sensitive taint of glass and plastics. Furthermore, in comparing with other options, In Vessel composting has no energy end product and need excess energy for operation, which will impact more issues from power coevals such as air pollution. It is similar with AD that the development is non bad for ecosystem and ocular direction as the proposed site is antecedently used land whic h may be contaminated or brownfield site. The engineering has a greater ability to command air pollution emanations than mass burn EfW in theory, but this has non yet been demonstrated in pattern in the UK ( Environment Agency, 2010 ) . 4.3.2 Economic impacts Although the capital cost is non rather expensive than Energy from Waste, the balance of input and end product of waste intervention procedure is wholly different than other options. Harmonizing to Figure 3, the developer or authorities should put more money for rejected waste to landfill and extra energy ( ?473,040 ) , which means the net incomes of recyclates can non do certain the continuously procedure of operation. Therefore, in footings of economic facet, this engineering is non suited for the UK cardinal sustainable development mark and is the worst option. Energy from Waste In the UK, Energy from waste has a peculiarly hapless public image and has been problematic by environmental groups on the evidences of sensed wellness impacts from emanations to air. Combustion of residuary MSW can bring forth or let go of C dioxide and other nursery gases. Hence C emanations should to be considered in footings of composing of the residuary waste watercourse, the type of energy produced ( heat and/or power ) and the overall generating efficiency of the installation. 4.4.1 Environmental impacts Compared with other options, EfW can disposal of a assortment of waste without restriction and pre-treatment required. However, dust job may be within the waste response hall or drawn into the furnace. Furthermore, there is a WID emanation restriction and air quality criterions regulated in order to command the air emanation particularly greenhouse gases from mills. The advantage of this engineering is that the province of the art of pollution control engineering is completed for planetary usage. In add-on, energy recovery includes Combined Heat and Power ( CHP ) workss and chance for territory warming programmes. However, the temperature is non easy to command during the operation processes, which may impact the efficiency of residue quality and disposal when burning is non completed. Although EfW can decide waste to landfill and emission decrease ( methane ) from landfill and residuary waste, which to some extent may turn to clime alteration, air pollution of EfW is more important than other options ( Hong, 2010 ) . The WID emanation bounds to air shows day-to-day mean emanations limit from incineration in the followers ( Veolia, 2011 ) : Dust ( Particulates ) 10mg/m3 Entire Organic Carbon 10mg/m3 Hydrogen Chloride 10mg/m3 Carbon Monoxide 50mg/m3 Sulphur Dioxide 50mg/m3 Oxides of Nitrogen 200mg/m3 Harmonizing to Figure 2, the figure of waste can be combusted and bottom ash can be used for building applications, which reduces the measure necessitating landfill disposal to under 10 % of the feedstock mass ( IPPC, 2010 ) . In comparing with others, 8MWe net energy should be produced and present inexpensive heat and power either to the National Grid or local users. On the other manus, it besides save more energy and cut down pollution from power coevals workss. EfW is non long term liability installation, therefore, local EfW would supply the best planetary solution for Bristol depending on the Life Cycle Assessment. Furthermore, the impacts of ocular, plagues and noise and ecosystem are similar and related to other waste direction options and with proper planning can be minimized to acceptable degrees. As for the ocular impacts, the undermentioned factors should be considered: direct consequence on landscape by remotion of points such as trees ; potency of an exhaust stack associ ated with air clean up systems ; testing characteristics and graduated table of vehicles accessing site. 4.4.2 Economic impacts There is no uncertainty that EfW is one of the high capital costs engineering, nevertheless, it besides create net net incomes from the procedures. Harmonizing to Figure 3, although, gas cleansing remainders are risky wastes and landfilled at ?148 per metric ton, the installation can make ?3,048,320 net net income from operation system except the capital investing, which including ?185,000 income from bottom ash, ?3,784,320 net income from electricity and ?375,000 worth from recyclates. Therefore, EfW is the best option for waste intervention for Bristol in footings of economic system compared to other options. On the other manus, the installation will blow more investing and energy during the procedure stopped when there is no adequate waste for burning procedure. 4.5 Drumhead In drumhead, each option may accomplish the UK and local waste direction and recycling mark and to some extent cut down waste and air emanation such as methane and C. However, in footings of sustainable development which related to economic, societal and environmental facets, each option has its ain disadvantages and advantages. As for economic system except the capital investing, Energy from Waste can do more net income in 25 old ages than MBT utilizing Composting or Anaerobic Digestion. Although air emanation from EfW is more important than other options, EfW has been used for a long clip and is bettering or extenuating more sustainable engineerings to avoid the negative impacts on environment. It is true that Energy from waste has a peculiarly hapless public image ; nevertheless, public attitude will be changed within the state of affairs altering. Therefore, Energy from Waste is the best value options for Bristol City Council to make the waste intervention mark and follow sustain able development. 5. Extenuation Measures and Remediation Approach Energy from Waste is the Best Practicable Environmental Option for Bristol waste direction programme based on Environmental Impact Assessment ( EIA ) . As we all know that each option has its restriction, EfW is besides a instance in point. EIA states that the efficiency of burning, air emanation ( flue gas emanation and cleansing ) and public image are the chiefly important issues of EfW installation execution for Bristol. Furthermore, the land Restoration after usage should be considered at the beginning of building in order to be able to utilize every bit sustainable as possible. Extenuation steps should take to avoid, cut down, or rectify any important inauspicious effects that a proposed development is predicted to bring forth. First of wholly, because it is a smaller scale EfW workss, it is better to maximise the range for covering with hazard events and other possible inauspicious impacts. Furthermore, more information qualitative and quantitative appraisal of impacts such as meteoric conditions and ambient air quality should be collected for the following deepness appraisal. The recommended extenuation step for efficiency of burning is to utilize more effectual techniques. For illustration, the techniques such as Flue Gas Recirculation ( FGR ) can command the uncomplete burning in order to increase efficiency and to cut down the flow rate of pollutant emanations ( Liuzzo, 2007 ) . In add-on, the chimney should be high plenty to supply equal bill of exchange and to dispatch the merchandises without doing local sir pollution. There are besides some methods to increase positive public image, such as heightening propaganda or media spread and bettering instruction. The hazard direction including accident management/plan and security safeguard besides should be undertaken to avoid the wellness and safety of employees. As for the hereafter development after usage, the land should be careful managed to avoid possible risky constituents released into the land whether it is current contaminated or non ( McKendry, 2010 ) . The first recommendation purposes to used less penetrability stuffs for land building and cut down pollutants released. Furthermore, the regular clean up system is recommended to roll up the residuary waste during transporting system and clean up the soiled country such as oil let go ofing sites. Contaminated Land Management Regulation indicates that the defiler or proprietor has responsible to cover with pollution if the land will be contaminated by human activities. In my position, the proposal site is difficult to alter to an eco-green site after development, therefore, it is better to develop as commercial or industrial usage in the hereafter. 6. Decision In decision, Environmental Impact Assessment of Anaerobic Digestion, In Vessel Composting and Energy from Waste were analysed in this paper in order to happen out one of the best sustainable development for Bristol and besides achieve the UK cardinal ends for waste direction. It is surely that each option has both negative and positive impacts on environment and economic system. The chief purpose of them is to cut down waste sent to landfill and accomplish the UK waste direction mark ; moreover, they besides have same impacts on environment such ac ocular invasion, public image, possible contaminated land after usage and air pollution. However, the important impacts of installations are different in different engineerings ; for illustration, odour emanation is more important during anaerobiotic digestion attack, ocular invasion, public image and air emanation is more important for Energy from Waste, and energy usage and smell and leachate are important in composting procedure. In foo tings of economic system, EfW is the best option with highest net net incomes during the procedure ; on the other manus, In Vessel Compost is the worst attack because of excess energy supply. At the last, EfW has been chose to handle residuary Municipal Solid Waste with the extra extenuation steps in Bristol, which consequences in the development is non merely suited for international, national and local scheme but besides meet the Best Practicable Environmental Option which is sustainable and integrated in the farther development. 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Entrepreneurship Process and Principles Essay Example For Students

Entrepreneurship Process and Principles Essay Entrepreneurship process and principles Chapter: Introduction to Entrepreneurship process and principles Definition of entrepreneur -According to American Heritage Dictionary, â€Å"Entrepreneur is a person who organizes, operates and assumes the risk for business venture† -According to Skinner SJ and Ivancevich JM,† An entrepreneur is a person who takes the risks necessary to organize and manage a business and receives the financial profits and monetary rewards† -Entrepreneur is a person who organizes and assumes the risk of his or her own venture†. Meaning and definition of Entrepreneurship According to R. M. Hodgehs,-‘Entrepreneurship is the process of organizing, managing and assuming the risk of a business. † Entrepreneurship is the capacity for innovation, investment, and expansion in new markets, products and techniques. So entrepreneurship is considered as the act of assuming the risk and task of an entrepreneur, so it is the act of starti ng a business. Definition of Intrapreneurship -The term intrapreneurship refers to entrepreneurial activities that receive organizational sanction and resource commitments for the purpose of innovative results. Definition of Intrapreneur -According to Griffin, â€Å"Intrapreneur is an extrepreneurial person employed by a corporation and encouraged to be innovative and creative, a person with entrepreneurial characteristics who is employed within a large corporation, moreover, intrapreneurs are usually found in enterprises that encourage experimentation, tolerate failure, recognize success and share the wealth. Differences between Entrepreneuer and Intrapreneur. The basic differences are: DifferenceEntrepreneurIntrapreneur 1. DependencyAn entrepreneur is independent in his operationsBut an intrapreneur is dependent on the entrepreneur i. e. , the owner. 2. Raisingof fundsAn entrepreneur himself raises funds required for the enterprise. Funds are not raised by the entrepreneur only operate it. 3. RiskEntrepreneur bears the risk involved in the business. An intrapreneur does not fully bear the risk involved in the enterprise. 4. OperationsAn entrepreneur operates from outside. An intrapreneur operates from within the organization itself. Characteristics attributed to entrepreneur An entrepreneur’s characteristics attributed are following:- 1. Entrepreneurs are in committed, determine and perseverance. 2. Drive to achieve- Entrepreneur play challenging role to achieve something new. 3. Opportunity orientation- A successful entrepreneur is opportunity hunger, his focus is on opportunity rather than resource structure and strategy. 4. Initiative and Responsibility- An entrepreneur is a person who always take new right initiative and retain greater responsibility of business. . Seeking Feedback-Entrepreneur always evaluate his or her performance, his employees, and overall his business performance. 6. Internal locus of control-Entrepreneur believes and formulates himself as internal locus of controllable person for success of his business. Type A personality. 7. Tolerance of ambiguity- Entrepreneur tolerates of different unacceptable and ambigus situation as well as tactfully solve it. 8. Calculate risk taking-He is a sound calculator of risk and retain the ability of good judgments and analytical skills. 9. Tolerance of failure- Entrepreneurs use failure as a learning experience. 10. Creativity and innovativeness- He has vast creativity and innovative ideas. 11. Vision-Entrepreneurs know where they want to go. They have a vision and concept of what their firm can be. 12. Independence- The desire for independence s a driving force behind entrepreneurs. Functions of an Entrepreneur(For entrepreneurship) Functions of an entrepreneur are two types:- A) General functions:- 1) Risk taking- without taking risk entrepreneurs cannot take any initiative. Risk involved in every work and effort. ) Innovation- According to economists, an entrepreneur is a person with innovation and creativity. 3) Development and Extension of existing venture:-Entrepreneurs also find out potential customers and markets. He can not only set up a venture but also strive for the extension and continues growth of it. 4) Management and Marketing- When an entrepreneur establishes a new enterprise, he obliged to manage that obligation and run it properly. B) Specific function:- 1) Idea generation and scanning of the best suitable one. 2) Determination of business objectives. ) Product analysis and marketing research 4) Determination and form of ownership. 5) Completion of promotional formalities 6) Raising necessary funds 7) Purchasing machine and materials 8) Recruitment of people 9) Undertaking the business operations. Distinction between entrepreneur and a manager. The major points of distinction are below: PointsEntrepreneurManager 1. MotiveThe main motive of an entrepreneur is to start a venture by setting up an enterprise. But the main motive of a manager is to render his services in an enterprise at ready setup by someone else. . StatusAn entrepreneur is the owner of the enterpriseA manager is the servant in the enterprise owned by the entrepreneur. 3. Risk bearingAn entrepreneur assumes all risks and uncertainty involved in running the organization. A manager as the servant does not bear any r isk involved In the enterprise. 4. RewardsThe rewards an entrepreneur gets for bearing risks involved in the enterprise in profit, which is highly uncertain. A manager gets salary as a reward for the services rendered by him in the enterprise. Salary of a manager is certain and fixed. . InnovationEntrepreneur act as innovator also called a change agent. Manager does is simply to calculate the plans prepared by the entrepreneur. 6. QuaifficationsAs entrepreneur needs to process qualities and qualifications like high achievement motive, originality in thinking , foresight ,risk bearing ability and so on. A manager needs to possess distinct qualifications in terms of sound knowledge in management theory and practice. So at times, an entrepreneur can be a manager also but a manager cannot be an entrepreneur. Types of Entrepreneurs. Basing on a research entrepreneurs are classified into four types which are:- 1) Innovative entrepreneur:-An innovating entrepreneur is one who introduces ne w goods, inaugurates new methods of production, discovers new market and recognizes the enterprise. 2) Imitative Entrepreneur: These entrepreneurs are characterized by readiness to adopt successful innovations inaugurated by innovating entrepreneurs. Imitative entrepreneurs don’t innovate the changes themselves; they only imitate techniques and technology involved by others. ) Fabian Entrepreneurs: Fabian entrepreneurs are characterized by very great caution and skepticism in experimenting any change in their enterprises. They imitate only when it becomes perfectly clear that if he not accept the change he will fail in business. 4) Drone entrepreneurs: These are characterized by a refusal to adopt opportunities to make changes in production formulate even at the cost of severely reduced returns relative to other like producers such entrepreneurs may even suffer from losses but they are not ready to make change in their existing. Following are some more types of entrepreneurs listed by some other behavioral scientists: Solo operators: these are the entrepreneurs who essentially work alone and, if needed at all, employ a few employees. Active partners: Active partners are those entrepreneurs who start /carry on an enterprise as joint venture it is important that all of them active participate in the operations of the business. Inventors: such entrepreneurs with their competence and inventiveness invent new products. Their basic interest lies in research ad innovative activities. Challengers: These are the entrepreneurs who plunge into industry because of the challenges it presents. When one challenge seems to be met, they begin to look for new challenges. Buyers: these are those entrepreneurs who do not like to bear some risk. Hence in order to reduce risk involved in setting up new enterprise, the like to buy ongoing on. Life timers: these entrepreneurs take business as an integral part of their life. Usually, family enterprise and business which mainly depend on exercise of personal skill fall in this type/category of entrepreneurs. Meaning of entrepreneurship development Entrepreneurship development consists of awareness about the entrepreneurial opportunities basing on survey, implementation of training programs to develop motivation and management skill, and providing infrastructural support of counseling, assisting, to establish a new enterprise and to develop existing units. So entrepreneurship development is encouraging I encouraging or developing to be an entrepreneur. Phases of Entrepreneurship Development Broadly, entrepreneurship development consists of these following phases:- 1) Initial phase: In these phase covered by creation of awareness about the entrepreneurial opportunities basing on survey. For instance here entrepreneur forecast demand and seeking opportunity. 2) Development phase: Implementation of training programs to develop motivation and management skills. Suppose –for a poultry or diary firm establishing needs training to those persons who will be an entrepreneur through this firm. 3) Support phase:-Infrastructural support of counseling, assisting to establish a new enterprise and to develop existing units. For example, Government has to provide counseling how finance, and other infrastructural support say youth development program, poly technique institute etc. National benefits of entrepreneurship/importance of entrepreneurship in the economic development of a country. Entrepreneurship plays an important roe inn the economic development of a country. Entrepreneurs are surely benefits to the nation at least 4 national benefits are:- 1) Entrepreneurship fosters economic growth. 2) Entrepreneurship creates new technologies products and services. 3) Entrepreneurship changes and rejuvenates market competition. Entrepreneurs stir up the waters of competition in the market place. 4) Entrepreneurship increases productivity –Entrepreneurship has been recognized for its dynamic role in rising productivity. The two to higher productivity are RD and investment in new plant and machinery. So there is closer relationship of these two and entrepreneurship. The importances of economic development through entrepreneurship are highlited below: 1)Proper utilization of resource – economic development of a country depends on the proper utilization of human and non- human resources. Entrepreneurs extend help in this regard by accumulating the scattered resources and make them productive by establishing new venture. 2)Industrialization-initiative is very much important for industrialization. Entrepreneurship is the process by which entrepreneur take initiatives by establishing new ventures. 3)Creation of employment opportunities: Entrepreneurship contributes substantially by crating employment opportunity for economic development. They establish new organizations that employment labor force. )Other contributions:- There are some other fields where entrepreneurship contribute, such as to increase national income, rate environment for innovation, change personal consumption, development infrastructure ad above all change the standard of living of people. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Sheet1 Cha pter1 Entrepreneurship Development Chapter2 Definitions and Framework Entrepreneur: Definition The word â€Å"entrepreneur† is derived form the French verb entreprendre. It means â€Å"to undertake†. In the early 15th century, the Frenchmen who organized and led military expeditions were referred to as â€Å"entrepreneurs†. Around 1700 A. D. the term was used for architects and contractors of public work. The term â€Å"entrepreneur† was applied to business initially by the French economist, Cantillion, I the 18th century, to designate a dealer who purchases the means of production for combining them into marketable products. The Entrepreneur: Other Definition Adam Smith described entrepreneur as a person who only provides capital without taking active part in the leading role in enterprise. Richard Cantillion considered all persons engaged in economic activity as entrepreneurs. Marx regarded entrepreneur as asocial parasite. Joseph A. Schumpter recognized a person one who introduces innovative changes is an entrepreneur. He treated entrepreneur as an integral part of economic growth. The fundamental resources source of disequilibrium was the entrepreneur. Noah Webster thinks entrepreneur is one who assumes he risk and management of business. Robert D. Hisrich says, The person who is going to establish a successful new business venture must also be a visionary leader- a person who dreams great dreams. Although there are many definitions of leadership, the one that best describes the needed entrepreneurial leadership is: A leader is like a gardener. When you want a tomato, you take a seed, put it in a fertile soil, ad carefully water under care. You don’t manufacture tomatoes, you grow them. Martin Luther King said, â€Å"I have a dream, and thousands followed in spite of overwhelming obstacles. In order to establish a successful new business venture the entrepreneurial leader must have a dream and work against all obstacles to achieve it. Entrepreneur is one who distinguishes as a person who undertakes to organize, mange and assume the risk of running factory and /or a business or a enterprise. Entrepreneurship is neither a science nor an art. It is a practice. It has a knowledge base. Knowledge in entrepreneurship is a means to an end. Indeed, what constitutes knowledge in practice s largely defined by the ends, that is, by practice. V. V. I definations ?The New Encyclope dia Britannica considers an entrepreneur as â€Å"an individual who bears the risk of operating a business In the face of uncertainty about future conditions. Leading economists of all schools, including Karl Marx, have emphasized the contribution of the entrepreneurs to the development of economics. ?Schumpter’s definition of entrepreneur: Joseph A. Scumpter thus writes: â€Å"The entrepreneur is an advanced economy is an individual who introduces something new in the economy-a method of production not yet tested y experience in the branch of manufacturing concerned, a product with which consumers are not yet familiar, a new source of raw material or of new markets and the like† ? In the case of developing economy like ours, the concept is being understood differently. Entrepreneur in a developing is one who stars an industry (old or new), undertake risk, bear uncertainties and also performs the managerial functions of decision –making and co—ordination. Concept of entrepreneurship In the words of A. H. Cole, entrepreneurship is the purposeful activity of an individual or a group of associated individuals, undertaken to initiate, maintain or organize a profit oriented business unit for the production of distribution of economic goods and services. McClelland describes the innovative characteristics of entrepreneurial role. Entrepreneurial role, bye definition, involves doing things in a new and better way. A businessman who simply behaves in a traditional way is not an entrepreneur. Moreover, entrepreneurial role calls for decision making under uncertainty. McClelland, like others, identified two characteristics of entrepreneurship. First, doing things â€Å"in a new and better way†. This is synonymous with the innovative characteristics given by Schumpter and secondly, decision making under uncertainty. Higgins defines the terms as, â€Å"Entrepreneurship is meant the function of seeing investment and production opportunity, organizing an enterprise to undertake a new production process, raising capital, hiring labor, arranging for supply of raw materials and selecting top managers for the day- to- day operation on the enterprise. † According to Peter Ducker, â€Å"Entrepreneurship is neither a science nor an art. It is a practice. It has a knowledge base. Knowledge in entrepreneurship is a means to the end. Indeed, what constitutes knowledge in practice is largely defined by the ends, that is, by the practice. † The Myths of Entrepreneurship Throughout the years many myths have arisen about entrepreneurship. These myths are the result of a lack of research in entrepreneurship. Ten of the most notable myths with an explanation to dispel each myth appear below. Myth1: Entrepreneurs are doers, not thinkers While it is true that entrepreneurs have a tendency toward action, they are also thinkers. Indeed they are often very methodical people who plan their moves carefully. The emphasis today on creation of clear and complete business plans is an introduction that â€Å"thinking† entrepreneurs are as important as doing† entrepreneurs. Myth2:Entrepreneures are born, not made The idea that the characteristics of entrepreneurs cannot be taught or learned, that they are innate traits which one must be born, has long been prevalent these traits include aggressiveness, initiative, drive, a willingness to take risks, analytical ability, and skill in human relations. Today, however, the recognition of entrepreneurship as a discipline is helping to dispel this myth. Like all disciplines, entrepreneurship has models, processes, and case studies that allow the topics to be studied and the traits acquired. Myth3: Entrepreneurs are always Inventors The idea that entrepreneurs are inventors is a result of misunderstanding and tunnel vision. While many inventors are also entrepreneurs, there are numerous entrepreneurs who encompass all sorts of innovative activity. For example, Ray Kroc did not invent the first food franchise, but his innovative ideas made McDonalds the largest fast food enterprise in the world. A contemporary understanding of entrepreneurship covers more than just invention. There must be a compel understanding of innovative behavior of all forms. Myth4:Entrepreneurs are Academic and Social Misfits The belief that entrepreneurs are academically and socially ineffective is a result of some business owners having started successful enterprises after dropping out of school or quitting a job. In many cases such as event has been blown out of proportion in an attempt to profile the typical entrepreneur. Business education, for example, was aimed primarily at the study of corporate activity. Today the entrepreneur is considered a hero- socially, economically, and academically. No longer a misfit, the entrepreneur, the entrepreneur is now viewed as a professional. Myth5:Entrepreneur Must Fit the â€Å" Profile† Many books and articles have presented checklists of characteristics of the successful entrepreneur. These lists were neither validated nor complete; they were based on case studies and on research findings among achievement- oriented people. Today we realize that a standard entrepreneurial profile is hard to compile. The environment, the venture itself, and the entrepreneur have interactive effects, which result in many different types of profiles. Myth6: All you need is money to be an entrepreneur It is true that a venture needs capital to survive; it is also true that a large number of business failures occur because of lack of adequate financing. Yet having money is not the only bulwark against failure. Failure due to a lack of proper financing often is an indicator of other problems: managerial incompetence, lack of financial understanding, poor investments, poor planning, and the like. Myth7:Allyou need is luck to be an Entrepreneur Being at the right place at the right time is always an advantage. But â€Å"luck happens when preparation meets opportunity† is an equally appropriate adage. Prepared entrepreneurs who seize the opportunity when it arises often appear to be â€Å"lucky†. They are, in face, simply better prepared to deal with solutions and turn them into success. Myth8: Ignorance is bliss for an entrepreneur The myth that too much planning and evaluation lead to constant problems, that overanalyzes leas to paralysis, does not hold up in today’s competitive markets, which demand detailed planning ad preparation. Identifying the strengths and weakness of a venture, setting up clear timetables with contingencies for handling problems, and minimizing these problems through careful strategy formulation- all are factors in successful entrepreneurship. Myth9: Entrepreneurs seek success but experience high failure rates It is true that many entrepreneurs suffer a number of failures before they are successful. They follow the adage â€Å"If at first you do not succeed, try, and try again. † In fact, failure can teach many lessons to those willing to learn and often leads to future success. This is clearly seen through the corridor principle, which states that with every venture lunched, new and unintended opportunities often arise. The 3M Company invented â€Å"Post it† notes using glue that had not been string enough for its intended use. Rather then through away the glue, the company focused on finding anther use of it and, in the process, developed a multimillion – dollar product. Yet the statistics of entrepreneurial failure rates have been misleading over the years. In fact, one researcher, Bruce A Kirchofff, has reported that the high failure rate most commonly accepted may be misleading. Myth10: Entrepreneurs are Extreme Risk Takers( Gamblers) The public perception of the risk assumed by most entrepreneurs is distorted. While it mat appears that an entrepreneur is â€Å"gambling† or wild chance, the fact is that the entrepreneur is usually working on a moderate or â€Å"calculated† risk. Most successful entrepreneurs are work hard through planning and preparation or minimize the risk involved in order to better control the destiny of their vision. Importance of Entrepreneurship in The Economic Development of a Country Entrepreneurship plays an important role in the economic development of a country. Night EssayThe view of David C. McClelland is that, the high extent of achievement motivation activated entrepreneurs. The life histories of Rock Feller, Henry Ford, etc support this statement. He also viewed the people who devote themselves to attain success or to engage in creative activities are also entrepreneurs in the light of McClellands view; entrepreneurs can be divided into two types: 1. Owner entrepreneur 2. employed entrepreneur The entrepreneurs of first category are quite independent because they are owners of their own businesses. So hey bear a high extent of each motivation. While entrepreneurs of the second category possess the need for achievement but less than those of the first category. McClelland further stated that a desire to do well, not so much for the sake of social recognition or prestige, but for an inner feeling of personal accomplishment, induces people to be an entrepreneur. Individuals with string motivation for achievement are entrepreneurs having the following distinct characteristics. Take personal Responsibility Those who possess a strong degree of ankh, tend to take personal responsibility. They want to be successful by their own intelligence. Moderate Risk People possessing high degree of ankh always set moderate goals, which are attainable. They always take moderate or calculated risk, usually having 50% certainly and 50% uncertainty. They don’t take any risk with emotions. Seek Feedback High ach people always like to get feedback or reaction of what they do. This feedback propels them towards future actions. Sacrifice Small Interest for the Sake of Big One McClelland expressed in another study conducted in 40 countries that the nation’s with high degree of ankh made or reached economic progress. Thus, analyzing the result of the study of McClelland it can be concluded that the people who are successful entrepreneurs possess a high degree of achievement motivation. Motive – Acquisition Theory This theory is nothing but a revised version of McCalland’s Achievement Motivation Theory. This theory expresses that the mentality and personality of people are not I born, but they age flexible and changes the situation. An individual can be influenced and activated towards a goal by changing his / her talking, mentality, attitude, etc. such changes could be made possible by frequent training and development programs. This theory is termed is motivation acquisition theory. McClelland conducted a study in India to test the hypothesis. He arranged a training program for some owners of the grocery shops and found that all these owners went on to become successful businessmen. Thus, it can be concluded that training and extending other motivational supports can create entrepreneurs. Risk Taking Theory Richard Cantillion and John Sturt Mill, introduced risk taking theory. The essence of this theory is that the entrepreneurs should have the inclination to take moderate risk and ability to bear that risk. Economists explained hat the entrepreneurs must have the ability to take risk. On the other hand, psychologists viewed hat entrepreneurs should bear the mentality to take risk. The first one is denoted as the results of being as entrepreneur and second one is termed as cause. Economists do not find any boundary of taking risk while, psychologists thought there should be a limit which the entrepreneurs w ould take risk. They said that entrepreneurs will always take moderate or calculated risk. Those who are likely to take a high risk are not entrepreneurs rather than are gamblers. Real entrepreneurs take medium type of risk. Internal External Locus of Control Prof. J. D. Rotter of Ohio University is the originator of this theory. Locus of control is of two types 🙠 i) Internal and (ii) External. Human being is the product of the society, and social situation determines whether a person will be externally or internally oriented or not. Internal Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control could be defined as self- confidence extreme belief over ones ability and power. Foe example, if a person invests money in a business undertaking believing and thinking that he/she will be able to yield an expected return, we can call him/her an internal locus of control oriented person. Their own confidence and belief propel these people. External Locus of Control If an individual thinks that everything is out of his/ her control, then the person’s locus of control is external. Values, beliefs, traditions fall under locus of control. This is exactly opposite of internal locus of control orientation. Internal –External locus of control theory highlights the self confidence of a person, the dependency of fortune, and external environment. People have different mentalities. Entrepreneurs who have a high quality of self-confidence want to be controlled by him/her. Autonomy of Independence Motivation Theory This theory is some extent similar to the theory of internal-external locus of control theory. This theory tends to emphasize on the independent thinking of entrepreneurs. Self confidence, self-controlling ability and ability to think independently are said to be the psychological characteristics of entrepreneurs. People, who have this characteristic, are able to adapt themselves with the changing situations and can avoid social condemnation can be successful entrepreneurs. These traits help them to express their creative and innovative power of practice. Creativity or Innovation Theory Creativity is concerned with the origin of new and fundamental ideas or views. Creative individuals use their talents, thinking ability, etc. to create something new and with the help of various techniques they bring new ideas into practice. A person who has creativity and innovation capacity must do something new which is meaningful not only for him/her but for the society as well. Creativity may be of two types: i) Creating something new which was never done invented by others: and ii) Presentation an old idea in a new form. That is, to invent some new use of an old thing or idea. Creativity is a quality related to idea orientation and innovation. It is concerned with idea implementation as well. Power motivation Theory Power generally refers to the authority to do certain task properly. David C McClelland explained that the desire of one to have control over others is power. He also added that power influences people and that influences make a man powerful. Power can be two types: i)personal power ii)social power Personal power is related to self –interest while, social power is related to social interest. Entrepreneurs usually seek personal power. Leadership power id democratic while the power of entrepreneurs is always autocratic in nature. Sociological- Anthropogical –Cultural theory Sociological theory is concerned with the social condition, while anthropological theory is concerned with culture. Anthropology deals with the culture of people. The socio-cultural factors have a substantial influence in creating entrepreneurs as well as entrepreneurship. Many psychologists disagree as they view that only intention and mentality act in creating entrepreneurs. But the influence of socio- cultural factors cannot be totally discarded. Because there are instances where people have become entrepreneurs due to social reasons. If society creates some facilities available other than business, people will have a tendency to involve in professions other than commerce. There are socio-cultural motives or factors that act in creating entrepreneurs. These factors of variables are described below. Traditional Values and Modern Values Traditional values refer to traditional and cultural flows that are practiced in traditional society. Traditionally people like to be happy which they have. They do not like something new where risk is evolved. This is also inherent characteristics of human beings. For example, Bangladesh was under colonial rule for a long time. Due to the rule, colonial mentality and attributed have taken root within the people, which is influencing us to be bureaucrats rather than entrepreneurs. As a result of these traditional values, people are motivated to be bureaucrats. On the other hand modern values are absolutely opposite to the traditional ones. Modern values discard all these traditional values and energize people to be entrepreneurs. Modern values explain that business is the only way to earn independently and the entrepreneurs can dominate economic development of a country by doing business. Religious Values Famous germen social scientist Max Weber (1930) mentioned in his famous book ‘the protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism† that religious values are great hindrances for creating entrepreneurs. Infact religious values recommend the practice of feudalism. But after an era of feudalism, when capitalistic system was introduces d a positive relation comes into existence between capitalistic system and religious values. Some mentioned that religious values could not create entrepreneurs rather create problem in the process of entrepreneur creation. Another prominent scholar Duisenery did not support the total view of Max Waber. He said that only in some selected cases, religious values facilitate the creation of entrepreneurs. Because of anthropological influence, people shoe the tendency to be entrepreneurs. Due to social and cultural change and various situations, people found them in business to maintain their livelihood, e. g. , a large number of entrepreneurs engaged in a migrant community. There are three different theories of entrepreneurship in anthropology. They are (i)Urban orientation theory (ii)Marginal and tension theory (iii)Social cohesion theory Urban Orientation Theory Great differences are found between culture and people. In his famous book â€Å"The theory of social change† Prof. Hagen said that family tradition is the key determinant of the status of rural people, while, financial condition is the element to evaluate the status of the urban people. Due to this attitude and mentality of urban people, a number of entrepreneurs are found in urban areas. But as rural people do not bear such attitude the number of entrepreneurs is much lower in rural areas compared o urban areas. it is found that most of the entrepreneurs are city based. So it is concluded that urban environment and urban-centered mentality can create more entrepreneurs than rural areas. Marginal and Tension Theory Robert Park published this famous theory in 1928in this famous book† Marginal man†. He stared that a marginal man is one whose fate has condemned him to live in two societies . Golvanasy described that a person is a marginal man who keeps himself/herself aloof from his/her culture. The culture could be categorized into two basic categories :(i) occidental culture (ii) oriental culture those who are living in between these basic cultures are also called marginal man. Other studies show that a marginal man cannot be accepted widely in any society. Sometimes, they engage themselves in business for their existence. So, from the group of marginal man there is a likelihood of creating more experience. Social Cohesion Theory Froyed introduced social cohesion theory first in 1948. He found high extent of social cohesion prevails in those people who are living outside the society and culture. These type of cohesion also prevails in those people who are living outside there country. They maintain such social cohesion for their existence in the culture where they are living. When a person of that community undertakes a business and he/she tries to involve other members of that community in that business. So social cohesion theory bears a great significance in creating entrepreneurs in the society. Background Factors theory or General theory Studies show that personal traits or background factors determine entrepreneurs (Lee and Jo). These factors are age, education, family background, community, peer group relationships, honesty, birth order, child rearing practice, work experience etc. Age Age is an important factor for entrepreneurs. Usually, people exceeding 50 years are not willing to take risk and the number of entrepreneurs is also lower in that age group. Education Education is one of the most important factors for creating entrepreneurs. The higher the educated person, the higher the number of entrepreneurs in the nation and vice versa. Studies show that more entrepreneurs are created among the technical specialists. Family background Family background influences the creation of entrepreneurs greatly. if enough support and assistance is available from the family, a person can more easily be an entrepreneur. Community If a close association is maintained in a particular community it increases self confidence and creates an attitude and mentality to take risk. This ultimately leads towards becoming an entrepreneur. Peer group help of reference group If any reference group is available, undertaking of business concern becomes easier. Close network of people easily and cordially communicate with others, which facilitates the development of entrepreneurs. Ethics and Honesty If anyone becomes ethical and honest to the society, he/she has a chance to be an entrepreneur. Birth Order Saying goes that because of unlimited love and affection received from parents and other relatives, the eldest child of the family likes to at as senior and wants to control everyone. She/he dislikes working under anyone, i. e. , she/he does not like to be controlled by others. Because of nature first born may have a higher tendency to be entrepreneur. The responsibility to look after younger ones goes to the elder. She / he has to earn money and for the matter she/he engages her/himself in business. But others viewed that due to unlimited affection, he/she lacks the capacity to face critical situation of business and thus losses everything in running business. Child rearing practice Whether a child will be an entrepreneur or not depends sometimes child rearing practices. How a child will act in future depends a lot on how she/he is being brought up. The seed of an entrepreneur can be sowed in child from early age by proper child rearing practice. A person can become an entrepreneur from the experience in business activities and positive performance. Social –Psychological theory These theories combine already discussed social and psychological theories together. The Schools of Entrepreneurial Thought In this section we shall highlight the ideas emanating from macro and micro views of entrepreneurial thought. The external View The macro view of entrepreneurship presents a broad array of factors that relate to success of failure in contemporary entrepreneurial ventures. This array includes external processes that are sometimes beyond the control of the individual entrepreneur, for they exhibit a strong external locus of control point of view. Three schools of entrepreneurial thought represent a breakdown of the macro view 🙠 1) the environmental school of thought, (2) The financial/capital school of thought, (3) and the displacement school of thought of thought. The first of these is the broadcast and the most pervasive school. The Environmental School of thought This school of thought deals with the external factors tat affect a potential entrepreneur’s lifestyle. These can be either a positive or a negative force in the molding of entrepreneurial desires. The focus is on institutions, values, and more that, grouped together, from a socio-political environmental framework that strongly influences the development of entrepreneurs. For example, if a middle manger experiences the freedom and support to develop ideas, initiate contracts, of create and institute new methods, the environment will serve to promote that persons desire to pursue an entrepreneurial career. The financial or Capital school of thought This school of thought is based on the capital seeking process. The search for seed capital and growth capital is the entire focus of this entrepreneurial emphasis. In any cases, the venture capital process is vital to the development of an entrepreneur. This school of thought views the entire entrepreneurial venture from a financial management standpoint. The displacement school of thought This school of thought focuses on group phenomena. It holds that the group affects or eliminates certain factors that build the individual is an entrepreneur venture. As Ronstadt has noted individuals will not pursue a venture unless they are prevented or displaced from doing other. Three major types of displacement illustrate this school of thought. 1. Political Displacement: This type of displacement is caused by factors ranging from an entire political regime that rejects the free enterprise to government regulations and policies that limit or redirect certain industries. 2. Cultural displacement: This type of displacement deals with social groups precluded from professional fields. Ethnic background, religion, race, and sex are examples of factors that figure I the minority experience. Increasingly, the experience will turn various individuals from standard business professionals towards individual entrepreneurial ventures. 3. Economic displacement: This type of displacement is concerned with the economic variations of recession and depression, job loss, capital shrinkage, or just simply† bad times† can create the foundation for entrepreneurial pursuits, jut as it can affect venture development and reduction. Exp. Airline Business The Micro View The micro view of entrepreneurship examines the factors that are specific to entrepreneurship and are part of the internal focus of control. The potential entrepreneur has the ability, or control, to direct of adjust the outcome of each major influence. The Entrepreneurial School of Thought May researchers and writers have been interested in identifying those traits that are common to successful entrepreneurs. For example, achievement creativity, determination, and technical knowledge are four factors that usually are exhibited by successful entrepreneurs. Family development and educational incubation re also examined. The venture opportunity School of thought This school of thought focuses o the opportunity aspect of venture development. The search for sources of ideas, the development of concepts, and the implementation of venture opportunities are the important areas of interest for this school. Creativity and market awareness are viewed as essential. Additionally, according to this school of thought, developing the right idea at the right time for the right market niche is the key to entrepreneurial success. The strategic formulation school of thought The strategic formulation approach in entrepreneurial theory emphasizes the planning process in successful venture and development. Ronstad views the strategic formulation s a leveraging of unique elements. Unique markets, unique people, unique products, or unique resources are identified, used, or constructed into effective venture formations. The inter-disciplinary aspects of strategic adaptation become apparent in the characteristics elements listed below: Unique markets: Mountain versus mountain gap strategies, which refers to identifying major market segments as well as interstice markets that arise from larger markets. Unique People: Great chef strategies, which refers to the skills or special talents of one or more individuals around whom the venture is built. Unique products: Better widgets stratifies, which refers to innovations that encompass new or existing markets. Unique resources: Water well strategies, which refers to the ability to gather or harness special resources (land, labor, capital, raw materials) over the ling run. Sheet 4 Chapter2Understandig the entrepreneurial Perspective Challenges for Entrepreneurs:-the entrepreneurs Confrontation With risk Starting or buying a new business involves risk, and the higher the rewards, the greater he risk entrepreneurs usually face. This s why entrepreneurs tend to evaluate the risk very carefully. In an attempt to describe the risk taking activity of entrepreneurs, researchers Thomas Monoy and Robbrt Folger developed a typology of entrepreneurial styles. In these model financial risks is measure against the level of profit motive, with the characteristics or risk being coupled with the type of activity. Profit seeking activity is associated with the